First, some of THR’s greatest Tips and Treats. Good resources for teachers and students who have some interest in advancing their knowledge and abilities in Latin, and grammar in particular.

Si, nisi, num and ne – all the ali(s) go away

• ali takes a holiday

• Dic, duc, fac, fer – should be an ‘e’ but it isn’t there

Particles – Latin’s way of punctuating sentences

Protasis     if                                          Apodisis     then

Rule of the Penult – If the penult is long, always accent the penult.

Or…

In a word of 2 syllables accent the first syllable; in a word of 3 or more syllables (1) the accent falls on the penult if that syllable is long, otherwise on the antepenult.

Genitive of the Charge; Genitive of the Penalty

“should/would” – Present Subjunctive

Subordinate clause – Because I am hungry, I eat – Primary Clause

QU*  introduces a subordinate thought

Imperfect – 3 stages of action in the past:

• Iterative Imperfect – I was fighting, I used to fight
• Conative – I tried to fight, I attempted to fight
• Inceptive – I began to fight, I started to fight.

When translating, keep within clauses

Locative – use genitive ‘where’ for cities, towns, small islands, rus and domus

• use ablative place from which;
• use accusative place to which

• George W, President of US, went to Oslo   Apposition    

Pronouns – Unlike adjectives, which follow case, number, gender of noun, pronouns are used as nouns in and of themselves

Subordinate/Dependent clauses – typically use subjunctive

Trivia – 3 roads (tres viae) coming together

Since -  Causal

While (present)

After Which (perfect) Temporal

Although – Concessive

Translate Future more vivid in the present tense

Adjectives (3^rd Decl) acting as nouns – have ‘e’ in ablative singular

Autem – adversative – adverse to what precedes it

Verbs of Forgetting and Remembering take the genitive

Demonstrative Pronouns – Hic, Ille, Iste, Is, Idem

Personal Pronouns – Ego, Tu

Relative Pronouns – Qui Quae Quod,  - The gender and number or a relative are determined by the antecedent, the case of a relative is determined by the use of the relative in its own clause.

Interrogative Pronoun – Quis Quid –

 Distinguish between qui quae quod and quis quid by:

• does the form introduce a question as shown by the sense and punctuation?
• Does the form have an antecedent? (The relative does have an antecedent, the interrogative does not.)

Interrogative Adjective: qui? quae? quod? is identical to the relative pronoun but (1) it modifies a noun interrogatively and (2) it has no antecedent.

After verbs meaning to free, to lack, and to deprive, the ablative of separation is used without a preposition; after other similar verbs a preposition (ab, de, ex) may be used and is regularly used with a person.

Ablative of manner may be expressed with cum and the ablative; when the noun is modified by an adjective, cum may be omitted.

Ablative Absolute – the noun/adjective in the ablative may not refer to a noun or adjective in the primary (main) clause.

Indirect Statements –

In Indirect Statements, regardless of the tense of the main verb:

• The present infinitive indicates the same time as the main verb
• The perfect infinitive indicates time before that of the main verb
• The future infinitive indicates time after that of the main verb.

Perfect  - Per factus – thoroughly done

Reflexive Pronouns – ordinarily used only in predicate and referring to the subject; since by definition they can’t serve as subjects, they have no nominative and otherwise the declension is the same as that of the corresponding personal pronouns.

Same number of syllables nom and genitive – 3^rd I stems

Ablative of Accompaniment and Manner : In translating from English to Latin, if with tells with whom or how, use cum + ablative; if with tells by means of what, use the ablative without a preposition.

Only transitive verbs can be used in the passive.

Plus – in singular is used only as a noun, and is often followed by a genitive.

Jussive – very common use of subjunctive in the independent uses of subjunctive

Purpose – Ut/Ne + Pres or Imperf. Subjunctive

Result – Ut/Ut Non + Subjunctive

 Tam/Tantus/Ita often flags a result clause is coming.

Reflexives relate back to the main clause, even if found in a dependent clause.

3^rd declension nouns with the same number of syllables in gen as nom have “ium” in Gen Pl, except the so-called ‘family’ nouns of ‘pater; mater; frater; senex; iuvenis; canis; 3^rd declension nouns of 1 syllable ending in 2 consants are “i” stems.

Bonus, melior, optimus; malus, peior, pessimus; multi, plures, maximus; parvus, minor, minimus; dubius, magis dubius, maxime dubius; idoneus, magis idoneus, maxime idoneus

Some nouns are only found in the Plural : amgustiae; arma; divitiae; excubiae; feriae; hiberna; Kalendae; Idus; insidiae; liberi; minae; maiores; moenia; Nonae; spolia; tenebrae

fas, nefas, nihil and nil are indeclinables.

Verbs with object in dative: impero, appropinquo, obtempero, vaco; displiceo, faveo, indulgeo, invideo, nedeor, noceo, pareo, persuadeo, placeo, studeo, suadeo; confido, consulo, credo, diffido, ignosco, irascor, nubo, obsisto, occurro, parco, resisto, servio, subvenio, succurro

Verbs with object in ablative: utor, abutor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, careo, egeo, opus est

Verbs which take Infinitive as object: volo, nolo, malo, possum, debeo, statuo, constituo, cupio, sino, cogo, prohibeo, audio, conor, desino, dubito/cunctor, soleo, scio, coepi

A negative command, or a prohibition, uses ne + pres. subjunctive.

Double direct questions us utrum … an (anon); -ne … an (anon); -… an (anon)

Se is not used to refer to subject of main verb if 3^rd person

Clauses – causal quod, quia, quoniam + indicative or cum + subjunctive

Clauses – temporal dum + indic or dum + Subjunctive, pres or imperfect, when purpose or design Sede ibi dum redeam or Exspectabant dum copiae venirent

Sequence of Tenses:   Main  Subordinate Subjunctive

Cum – Subordinating conjunction

Cum + indicative – “when” as in explaining the time when

Cum + subjunctive – when, since, although – explaining circumstances

3^rd + 4^th conjugation verbs – IOU for present, AE for future

Table of Conditions

Utor, Vescor, Fungor, Fruor, Potior + ablative

Sequor, Sequi, Secutus Sum – Executive,  pursue, prosecute; sequential

Verto, Vertere, Versus sum – conversation, versatile

Verbs taking Dative

Verbs meaning favor, help, harm, please, displease, trust, distrust, believe, persuade, command, serve, resist, envy, threaten, pardon, spare

Dative with compound verbs:

Adsum amico, Appono panem amicis,  sequor eum  but obsequor ei

Praeerat exercitui; Praeposue or preafeci eum exercitui

Praeposui pecuniam amicitiae – I preferred money to friendship

Repugnavi fratri tuo – I opposed your brother

Composuit se mihi – he compared himself with me

Jussive – Ut or Ne 

He ordered you to do this – that you should do this – imperavit vobis ut hoc faceretis

Fio – past participle of facio

Cities, towns, small islands, and home : use locative visus est Romae

Relative Clause with Indicative : FACT – hic est liber quem omnes legunt

Relative Clause with Subjunctive: Characteristic – Quis est qui hoc credat?

Many Latin verbs that connote command or request may be followed by ut/ne and a subordinate jussive subjunctive.

Gerund – formed off future passive pariciple :  studium vivendi

Gerundive – verbal noun – form same as gerund but are active in meaning : studium legendo libros

Studium legendi libros             |  Gerund

Studium librorum legendorum  |  Gerundive

Decem milia virorum

Tres ex viris

Latin ‘V’ was translated into Greek Ou

Parts of speech : Noun (substantive and adjective), Pronoun, Verb, Particles (adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions)

According to their syntactical use, the cases are divided into Independent cases, and Dependent cases. Nom and Vocative are independent, the rest are dependent.

Pronouns point out without describing

Personal Pronouns : Ego/Nos;  Tu/Vos;  Su/is

Determinative Pronouns : is, idem, ipse

Demonstrative Pronouns : 1^st Person – Hic, 2^nd person Iste, 3^rd person ille

Relative Pronouns : qui,quae,quod; quisquis, quidquid;

Interrogative Pronouns  Quis Quid

Indefinite Pronouns : aliquis, aliquid; Quidam, Aliquis , Quisquam  and ullus; Quisque each one (as opposed to omnis); Alter (one of two, alius (of diversity);

cum … tum  -  when / then   AND  both / and

Relatives usually refer to the 1^st preceeding noun.

Correlatives:

Correlative Pronominal adjectives:

Interog   Demonstrative  Relative

Quis    is    qui

Qualis    talis    quails

Quantus   tantus    quantus

Quot    tot    quot

Correlative Pronominal Adverbs:

Ubi    ibi    ubi

Qua    hic, hac   qua

Unde    inde    unde

    Hinc

    Istinc

    Illinc

Quo    eo    quo

    Huc

    Istuc

    Illuc

Pronominal Adverbs of time

Quando   tum    quando

    Tunc

    Nunc

Quotiens   totiens   quotiens

Verbs : Conjugation expresses:

Person and Number

Voice – Active or Passive

Tense :  Present, Imperfect, Future

    Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect

Predicate and Copula – When the predicate is not in the form of a verb but in the form of an adjective or substantive, the so-called copula is generally employed in order to couple the adjective or substantive with the subject.

The chief copula is the verb ‘sum’

Sum Romanus

Common copulative verbs: su, videri, nasci, fieri, evadere, creari, deligi, putari, haberi, dico, appellari, nominari  and so therefore: Verbs of sensing, becoming, with the passive of verbs of making, choosing, showing, thinking and calling, take two nominatives – one of the subject, one of the predicate

Concords : There are three great concords in Latin

• Agreement of predicate with subject
• Agreement of attributive or appositive with the substantive
• Agreement of the relative with its antecedent

Indicative – represents the predicate as a reality

Subjunctive – represents the predicate as an idea – an abstraction

Subjunctive : Potential dicas you would say; Optative (or ne for negative)  stet haec urbs this city should stand ; Concessive : sit fur – it is granted he is a thief; Questions which expect an imperative answer :

Representatives of the Imperative : 2^nd person present subjunctive, 2^nd person Future Indicative, 3^rd person present subjunctive

Concord : the common predicate of two or more subjects is put in the plural number : Lucus et Tullia iunguntur nuptiis; Adjective agrees with its substantive in gender, number and case.

Comparatives – take either quam (+ same case) or ablative

-ne – question, not expecting yes or no

Nonne – expects “yes”

Num – expects “no”

Utrum/-ne - … an  ?

An – 2^nd part of disjunctive question

Num in indirect question simply means ‘whether’

In indirect questions, the mood of the question is the Mood of the expected answer. Quis homo est? Ego sum. Abeam? Abi – shall I go? Go! 

Figures of Rhetoric – Litotes – expression of something by expressing the denial of its opposite – non numquam; Oxymoron – combination of contradictory conceptions – honest car dealer; Alliteration –  use of words presenting frequent repitition of the same letter – Susie slipped on ice; Onomatopoeia – suiting of sound to sense – slithering snake ; Paraleipsis – pretended omission for rhetorical effect – I shall not speak of the night of January 13, 1953 when that child was born to parents …

Conjunction: a conjunction is a word that joins words or groups of words

There are 3 kinds of conjunctions : 1 coordinating  2 correlative   3 subordinating

coordinating conjunctions

and but or nor for

correlative conjunctions

either … or  not only … but also

neither … nor   whether … or   both … and

subordinating conjunctions

after before provided unless

Although how since  until

as if than when

as much as in order that that where

because inasmuch as though while

Copulative conjunctions: Et – joins like and unlike alike; -que (enclitic) unites things that belong closely to one another, with the second completing or extending the first; atque adds a more important to a less important number; ac – same as et; etiam exaggerates and precedes the word to which it belongs; quoque complements and always follows the words to which it belongs

Adversative particles: autem (weak), sed (denotes contradiction), verum always 1^st in sentence and a bit stronger than sed), vero (usually 2^nd place and asserts with conviction to heighten the statement), at (introduces startling transitions, wishes, often by way of quotation) , atqui (stronger than at, used in arguments), tamen (often combined with at,verum,sed – Prepositive), ceterum adversative ‘but’).

Disjunctives: Aut, Vel, Sive (seu),

Causal particles – nam, enim, namque, etinam

Itaque – put at the beginning of sentence, used of facts that follow from the preceding statement

Ergo – denotes necessary consequences, more emphatic than igitur

1184 BC Aeneas wanders into Italy

754 : Rome founded - 7 Kings 1- Romulus 2- Numa Pompilius; 3– Tullus Hostilius [develops military powers];  4-Ancus Marcius [new city walls, a prison, builds Ostia]; 5– Lucius Tarquinius Priscus [gained throne by fraud, was assassinated]; 6– Servius Tullius [defeated Carthage at Veii];; 7– Lucius Tarquinius (Tarquinius Superbus) [confronts and orchestrates murder of #6 , his father-in-law], tyranny leads to … 

515 BC Revolution led by Brutus –

 2 consuls elected each year (to avoid monarchy)

 Consul or Praetor who was commander-in-chief = Imperator

399 BC – Socrates dies

• 1^st Punic War ; 218-201  2^nd Punic War

• 28 BC – Augustus becomes leader of the empire (which lasts another 1400 years)

AD 486 – Odoacer the German overthrows Romulus Augustulus, the last emperor.

Seven Hills of Rome – 1 Collis Quirinalis; 2 Collis Viminalis; 3 Mons Esquilinus;  4 Mons Caelius; 5 Mons Aventinus; 6 Mons Capitalinus; 7 Mons Palatinus

Gens Togata - Greeks

Mood – Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative

Tense – Primary (Pres, Fut, Perf, Fperf) and Secondary (Imp/Pluperf)

Look for Protasis/Apodisis,  and if found, find verb, find tense/mood; explain tense/mood and translate accordingly.

Indirect command – I ordered [you to do that]; Result I ordered you so much [that you did it] ; I ordered you [so that as a result you would do it] is result clause.

       | Present Subjunctive

Indirect Questions – Main Verb Primary  | Perfect Subjunctive

       | -urus sim (will)

   Main Verb Historic  | Imperf Subjunctive

       | Pluperf Subjunctive

       | -urus essem (would)

The verb of the main clause determines the sequence; the verb in the subordinate clause decides the tense of the subjunctive to be used.

Nonne puella est pulchra? Isn’t the girl beautiful?

Num puella est pulchra?  The girl isn’t pretty, is she?

Ad Italiam venies, an in Britannia manebis? Will you come or will you stay?

Ad Italiam venies anon? Will you come to Italy or not?

Praenomen      Nomen       Cognomen

Gaius               Julius        Caesar

First Name      Family Name   Nickname designating family branch   

Fero nomen and defero nomen – to sue

Hostis – Enemy of State

Inimicus – Personal Enemy

Homo – man not beast    Vir man not woman

Nihil sub sole novum – Ecclesiastes

Ille – French  - Le 

La – Illac

Hic, huc – illic, illuc –

The Gerundive is an Adjective

The Supine is a verbal noun of the 4^th principal part, accusative and ablative only.

Periphrastics : Formed by combining various tenses of ESSE with participle and verbal adjectives